Frequently asked questions regarding Private VPN for China

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

• If you try to sign in on a new device and go over the allowed device limit, you will be directed to the "Unbind Device" page, where you can disconnect any attached devices.
• Additionally, you can go to "Menu" > "App Settings" > "Device List" to choose and unbind a device you prefer.

Forgetting usernames or passwords is a common occurrence, and we strive to simplify the recovery process. Here are your options:

• If you can’t recall your username, please reach out to us and share a screenshot of your payment record.
• If you’ve misplaced your password, simply utilize the "forgot password" feature in the app.

Global Mode: This option enables VPN for all online activities, which might result in slower performance for local websites and applications.

Split Mode: This option employs VPN solely for websites that are restricted due to geographical limitations, like Google, YouTube, and Netflix, while still allowing access to local network sites for Chinese websites.

You can modify the routing mode in the App Settings.

If you encounter difficulties accessing specific websites or apps, consider switching to "Global Mode."

Please reach out to us if you require further assistance.

You can accumulate points by referring friends and utilize them to claim rewards. Here’s how it works:

• To begin, obtain your "Referral Code" or "Referral Link" by navigating to "Share & Gift" and selecting "Share Now." You can then forward it to friends or share it on your social media accounts or blog.
• You will earn 1 point for every friend who successfully registers through your referral, which can be exchanged for a 1-day pass.
• You can check your redeemed plans in the "My Account" section after redeeming your points.
• For a referral to count, your referred friend needs to download and start using the app. If they download it but do not use it, you will not earn your referral point until they start using the app.

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

The split mode feature in Private VPN for China accommodates web applications such as Telegram, WhatsApp, or Gmail that use HTTPS. This mode can modify the routing for both HTTP (port 80) and HTTPS (port 443), allowing access to the web versions of these applications. Nevertheless, the application versions might utilize various other ports.

To guarantee access, the following steps should be taken:

• Enable the "Global Mode" option found in the routing settings.
• Adjust the proxy settings of the application. For instance, here’s how to modify the proxy settings for the LINE app:
  
  

Common reasons for network problems are:

• Slow local internet speeds (when not using a VPN)
• Increased user traffic at specific VPN server locations

To address these problems, you can attempt the following techniques:

• Verify your local internet speed by temporarily turning off the VPN
• Experiment with various network connections like WiFi, 4G, or 5G with the VPN disabled to pinpoint any connection issues. For instance, if your WiFi is inconsistent, try switching to a mobile data connection.
• Disable the VPN, choose a new server location, and then reconnect
• If you prefer to remain within the same geographical area, disconnect and then reconnect, as this may connect you to a different server in the same region.
• Repeat these tests until you discover the most appropriate server for your needs.

Occasionally, there may be a delay in processing payments through the gateway. Here are the key points to remember:

• We support various payment methods, such as Alipay, WeChat QR Code Scanning Payment, and UnionPay.
• If your payment was successful but you do not see the relevant plan in your account right away, please wait for approximately 5 minutes, then log out and log back in.
• If you are still experiencing problems after following the steps above, please take a screenshot of your payment confirmation and contact us for further assistance.

此情况通常是由于系统代理地址设置不当或第三方软件的屏蔽和阻止所致。解决方法是手动添加Private VPN for China的科学上网代理地址。

请根据以下步骤进行操作：

• 在 Windows 系统中搜索并打开“Internet 选项”。
• 切换到“连接”标签页。
• 点击底部右侧的“局域网设置”按钮。
• 在局域网（LAN）设置页面中选中“使用自动配置脚本”选项，并在下方的地址框中输入：http://127.0.0.1:7525/proxy。
• 点击右下角的“确定”按钮，然后再次点击“确定”以关闭 Internet 属性。
• 最后，请完全关闭浏览器，然后重新启动浏览器即可享受科学上网。

如下图所示：

When installing the Private VPN for China app on Windows, you might receive warnings from your antivirus or firewall software since VPN applications can be viewed as potential risks. If you see these warnings, you should select options like "allow," "agree," or "trust" to proceed with the installation. This step is crucial for the VPN to work properly, as it needs to adjust proxy settings. Denying these permissions may affect the correct functioning of Private VPN for China.

Private VPN for China offers a 30-day money-back guarantee, allowing you a risk-free opportunity to try out all its features. Should you find it unsuitable during the first 30 days, you can receive a full refund. Here's what to do:

1. Visit the official Private VPN for China website.
2. Select a subscription plan that meets your requirements, with options available from monthly to yearly.
3. Sign up with your email and complete your payment using a credit card or PayPal.
4. Download and install Private VPN for China on your devices, including iOS, Windows, Android, and macOS.
5. Follow the instructions provided to set up Private VPN for China and log in to your new account to begin using the services.
6. If you are not satisfied with the service within the first 30 days, reach out to Private VPN for China's customer support to request a refund.

Please remember: It is important to fully understand Private VPN for China's refund policy. If you are not satisfied with the service, you can easily initiate a refund request.

To create a Private VPN for China Membership Account:

1. Access the Private VPN for China Website: Launch your web browser and navigate to the official Private VPN for China site.
2. Choose a Subscription Plan: Select the subscription plan that best fits your requirements, whether it’s for one month, six months, or a full year.
3. Sign Up for an Account: Hit the subscribe or purchase button, and register using your email address, which will act as your account ID.
4. Proceed with Payment: Opt for your desired payment method, such as a credit card or PayPal, and complete the transaction.
5. Email Confirmation and Setup Guide: After your payment is processed, Private VPN for China will send you a confirmation email with setup instructions, a download link, and an activation code.
6. Download and Setup: Follow the guidance provided in the email or on the website to download and install Private VPN for China on your device. When opening the app for the first time, enter the activation code or your login details.
7. Begin Using Our Service: After installing the app and logging in, choose a server location to start your secure browsing experience.

Important Note: Always make sure to purchase your subscription directly from the official Private VPN for China website or authorized sellers. Refrain from buying from unauthorized sources or third-party vendors to safeguard your financial and personal information.

To register for Private VPN for China, you would generally follow these steps:

Registration Steps:

1. Find the official Private VPN for China website using your favorite web browser.
2. Select a subscription plan that meets your requirements.
3. Enter a valid email address to receive your Private VPN for China account information and installation instructions.
4. Choose your preferred payment method, like a credit card or PayPal.
5. Adhere to the payment instructions provided by Private VPN for China to finalize the transaction.
6. Upon completing the payment, check your email for a confirmation message and further setup directions.
7. Download the Private VPN for China application by following the guidance in the email or on the website.
8. Log into the application using your new account credentials, select a server, click "Connect," and start using Private VPN for China.
9. (Optional) Repeat similar steps to install and configure Private VPN for China on other devices.

Always make sure to keep your account details private and adhere to Private VPN for China’s service terms and usage policies for safe and lawful usage of the service. If you encounter any issues during the sign-up or setup process, Private VPN for China customer support is usually available to help.

Sharing a paid Private VPN for China account generally involves a subscriber providing their login details, such as username and password, to others. This enables individuals who haven't paid for the service to benefit from a paid subscription. Nevertheless, this approach has several potential downsides.

Legal and Contractual Risks:

1. Breach of Service Agreement: Sharing your Private VPN for China account often violates the service agreement, which typically forbids account sharing.
2. Potential Legal Consequences: Sharing an account could result in legal ramifications, as it may be viewed as a breach of copyright laws or engaging in illegal activities.

Security Risks:

1. Risk to Personal Data: Granting others access to your Private VPN for China account heightens the risk to your personal data security, particularly if their usage is unknown to you.
2. Privacy Concerns: There is a risk to your privacy if others conduct activities under your account, which will ultimately be linked back to you.

Performance Issues:

1. Reduced Service Quality: If multiple users access Private VPN for China via a single account, it may result in slower connection speeds and decreased service performance.
2. Limits on Simultaneous Connections: Private VPN for China sets a limit on the number of devices that can connect at the same time under one account, which can be quickly reached with shared usage.

Reputational and Ethical Issues:

1. Impacts on Provider Revenue: Account sharing can reduce the provider's revenue, which can negatively impact the sustainability of their services and product offerings.

Although sharing a Private VPN for China account may appear to be financially beneficial, it brings a range of risks and complications. It is strongly recommended that individuals maintain separate accounts to ensure a secure, legal, and high-quality service experience.

A modified version of Private VPN for China that is cracked is an unauthorized alteration of the official app, allowing it to be used without payment. While it may seem appealing due to its zero-cost nature, there are considerable risks and issues related to its use:

Legal Issues

1. Infringement of Intellectual Property: Using cracked software violates the law and infringes on intellectual property rights in various regions.
2. Legal Consequences: Interacting with cracked software can lead to legal complications, possibly resulting in fines or other forms of punishment.

Security Risks

1. Malware Threat: Cracked versions often contain malware, viruses, or other harmful entities.
2. Personal Data Risk: There is an increased likelihood of your sensitive information being leaked, including usernames, passwords, and financial information.
3. Software Performance Problems: Cracked software generally does not operate as effectively or reliably as the legitimate version.

Privacy Issues

1. Insufficient Data Protection: There is no guarantee that your data is securely encrypted or safeguarded when using cracked software.
2. Potential for Surveillance and Data Logging: Cracked versions may not comply with the privacy standards established by legitimate providers and could monitor or track your online behavior.

Ethical and Reputation Concerns

1. Ethical Considerations: The use of cracked software undermines the effort and commitment of the developers.
2. Financial Consequences: The use of cracked software reduces corporate revenue, jeopardizing their ability to continue operations.

If you care about your data security and privacy, as well as want to adhere to ethical and legal standards, choosing a licensed service from a trusted provider is advisable. Many reputable providers offer free trials or refund policies, allowing you to assess their services in a secure manner.

Download the official Private VPN for China using the link below.

Download the official Private VPN for China by using the link provided below.

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

We've observed that some users find it challenging to select a server after picking a region.

To make things easier, we now showcase only regions. Heibao will automatically connect you to the server with the best performance in your selected region. Here are the details:

• The location menu will exclusively show regions, but each region hosts hundreds of servers. When you choose a region, Heibao will automatically connect you to the server that provides the optimal performance according to your network conditions.
• If you're not happy with the server you're connected to, you can disconnect and reconnect to the same region to be assigned to a different server.
• You can continue this process until you locate a server that suits your requirements.

Absolutely! Private VPN for China provides ongoing complimentary access via its "Daily Check-in" feature. Each time you check in, you'll get 15 minutes of free usage. Furthermore, you can accumulate points by referring friends, which can be traded for a 1-day pass. Here are the details:

• Private VPN for China offers continuous access with its daily check-in feature.
• New users initially receive 15 minutes of free time; thereafter, daily check-ins grant you an additional 15 minutes of free usage.
• There are no data limits during the free period, although free access is restricted to servers in certain locations.
• Accumulate points through our referral program, which can be redeemed for various subscription options.

Definitely! Private VPN for China supports multi-device connectivity under a single account, with the actual number of allowable devices depending on your subscription plan. Here are more details:

• You can log into your Private VPN for China account from any device including Android, iOS, macOS, or Windows by using the same user information.
• The number of devices you can connect simultaneously varies with the plan you select. Theoretically, there's no upper limit to how many devices can be linked.
• If you try to connect more devices than your plan permits, the system will ask you to disconnect other devices before logging in.
• Each device can be associated with up to two Private VPN for China accounts whether it is a computer or a mobile device. 

Of course, we offer a free trial! Each day, we provide a trial period that lasts for 15 minutes. To initiate your trial, just follow these steps:

1. Download the Private VPN for China app
2. Create a new account
3. Click the "Daily Check-In" button located on the main page

Please be aware: The free trial promotion is temporary and may terminate at any time without prior notice.

Private VPN for China prioritizes privacy, assuring that it does not maintain any logs of user activities or connections. Additionally, the organization guarantees that no information is stored that could link specific network actions or behaviors to individual users.

You can connect multiple devices to one account, with the device limit varying according to the subscription plan selected. The important points to consider regarding this feature are:

• Accounts can be accessed on various platforms, regardless of the platform used for the initial sign-up (e.g., Android, iOS, macOS, Windows).
• The number of devices allowed differs based on the subscription plan, potentially enabling an unlimited number of devices per account.
• Notifications will be issued if the number of connected devices surpasses the plan's limit, prompting users to detach extra devices upon logging in.
• Each device can be associated with up to two accounts, regardless of whether it is a computer or a mobile device.

Certainly! You have the opportunity to access Private VPN for China at no cost indefinitely through the "Daily Check-in" feature. Each day, you receive 15 minutes of complimentary usage time. Moreover, for every successful referral, you earn 1 point, which can be redeemed for a 1-day pass. Here are the key points:

• Private VPN for China promises to provide the "Daily Check-in" feature free of charge indefinitely.
• New users are offered an initial 15 minutes of free usage time, with the chance to earn an additional 15 minutes by completing the check-in process the next day.
• During the free trial, you may utilize our services without any limitations on usage. However, please be aware that server access is limited to locations included in the free plan.
• You can accumulate points by engaging in our referral program and then redeem them for various plans.

Absolutely! We offer a 15-minute trial period each day. To start your trial, kindly follow these instructions:

1. Download the Private VPN for China app.
2. Create a new account.
3. Click the "Daily Check-In" button on the app's main screen.

Please note that the availability of this free trial may vary and could be terminated at any moment without prior notification.

Private VPN for China prioritizes user privacy, guaranteeing that no logs of activities or connections are maintained. Additionally, the VPN service refrains from retaining any information that could potentially identify specific network activities or behaviors linked to an individual user.

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

While free Private VPN for China and proxy services exist, free Private VPN for China is typically not advised due to their common deficiencies in privacy and security compared to paid Private VPN for China. Free Private VPN for China often perform poorly, may jeopardize your data by selling it, and generally fail to offer adequate protection against possible cyber attacks.

Although iPhones allow users to connect to VPN servers via their system settings, this functionality by itself does not deliver comprehensive VPN services. To fully take advantage of VPN features, you must connect to an external VPN provider like Private VPN for China.

Utilizing a VPN on your iOS device ensures that your online activities remain highly secure. You can choose from a diverse selection of VPN server locations, enabling you to modify your device's IP address, protect your data on public Wi-Fi, and reach content that might otherwise be restricted.

Private VPN for China provides a protective shield for your iOS device while you're online, establishing a secure barrier against issues such as surveillance, tampering, and content restrictions. With Private VPN for China, you can freely indulge in streaming, online shopping, and web browsing, confident that your privacy and security are effectively safeguarded.

Certainly! You have the opportunity to access Private VPN for China at no cost indefinitely through the "Daily Check-in" feature. Each day, you receive 15 minutes of complimentary usage time. Moreover, for every successful referral, you earn 1 point, which can be redeemed for a 1-day pass. Here are the key points:

• Private VPN for China promises to provide the "Daily Check-in" feature free of charge indefinitely.
• New users are offered an initial 15 minutes of free usage time, with the chance to earn an additional 15 minutes by completing the check-in process the next day.
• During the free trial, you may utilize our services without any limitations on usage. However, please be aware that server access is limited to locations included in the free plan.
• You can accumulate points by engaging in our referral program and then redeem them for various plans.

Absolutely! We offer a 15-minute trial period each day. To start your trial, kindly follow these instructions:

1. Download the Private VPN for China app.
2. Create a new account.
3. Click the "Daily Check-In" button on the app's main screen.

Please note that the availability of this free trial may vary and could be terminated at any moment without prior notification.

Private VPN for China prioritizes user privacy, guaranteeing that no logs of activities or connections are maintained. Additionally, the VPN service refrains from retaining any information that could potentially identify specific network activities or behaviors linked to an individual user.

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

By configuring a VPN on your Android device, you can ensure that all your activities remain secure. Just connect to one of our numerous VPN servers to change your device's IP address, protect your data on public Wi-Fi networks, and access blocked websites and services.

A VPN creates a virtual network by linking several computers together virtually. Originally designed for speed and security, it is now mainly used for privacy, encryption, and accessing restricted content.

You can connect multiple devices to one account, with the device limit varying according to the subscription plan selected. The important points to consider regarding this feature are:

• Accounts can be accessed on various platforms, regardless of the platform used for the initial sign-up (e.g., Android, iOS, macOS, Windows).
• The number of devices allowed differs based on the subscription plan, potentially enabling an unlimited number of devices per account.
• Notifications will be issued if the number of connected devices surpasses the plan's limit, prompting users to detach extra devices upon logging in.
• Each device can be associated with up to two accounts, regardless of whether it is a computer or a mobile device.

Certainly! You have the opportunity to access Private VPN for China at no cost indefinitely through the "Daily Check-in" feature. Each day, you receive 15 minutes of complimentary usage time. Moreover, for every successful referral, you earn 1 point, which can be redeemed for a 1-day pass. Here are the key points:

• Private VPN for China promises to provide the "Daily Check-in" feature free of charge indefinitely.
• New users are offered an initial 15 minutes of free usage time, with the chance to earn an additional 15 minutes by completing the check-in process the next day.
• During the free trial, you may utilize our services without any limitations on usage. However, please be aware that server access is limited to locations included in the free plan.
• You can accumulate points by engaging in our referral program and then redeem them for various plans.

Absolutely! We offer a 15-minute trial period each day. To start your trial, kindly follow these instructions:

1. Download the Private VPN for China app.
2. Create a new account.
3. Click the "Daily Check-In" button on the app's main screen.

Please note that the availability of this free trial may vary and could be terminated at any moment without prior notification.

Private VPN for China prioritizes user privacy, guaranteeing that no logs of activities or connections are maintained. Additionally, the VPN service refrains from retaining any information that could potentially identify specific network activities or behaviors linked to an individual user.

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

Utilizing Private VPN for China on your Windows PC ensures that all your activities remain secure. Once you connect to one of our Private VPN for China server locations, your device's IP address will be replaced with a new one, protecting your data on public Wi-Fi networks and allowing access to blocked websites and services.

Although free Private VPN for China and proxy services are available, free Private VPN for China is generally not recommended because they often lack the privacy and security measures found in paid Private VPN for China Free Private VPN for China frequently underperform, might endanger your data by selling it, and usually do not provide sufficient protection against potential cyber attacks.

Getting started is easy! Just sign up for Private VPN for China, install the app on your device, and click the "On" button that appears on your screen.

Although Windows 10 and 11 include a VPN client, it does not function as a complete VPN service. To fully enjoy the advantages, you must connect to a third-party VPN such as Private VPN for China. The setup process can be somewhat complicated, which is why many prefer to simply use the Private VPN for China app instead.

A VPN establishes a virtual network by connecting various computers over the internet. While initially centered on speed and security, it primarily now aims to provide privacy, encryption, and access to restricted content.

You can connect multiple devices to one account, with the device limit varying according to the subscription plan selected. The important points to consider regarding this feature are:

• Accounts can be accessed on various platforms, regardless of the platform used for the initial sign-up (e.g., Android, iOS, macOS, Windows).
• The number of devices allowed differs based on the subscription plan, potentially enabling an unlimited number of devices per account.
• Notifications will be issued if the number of connected devices surpasses the plan's limit, prompting users to detach extra devices upon logging in.
• Each device can be associated with up to two accounts, regardless of whether it is a computer or a mobile device.

Certainly! You have the opportunity to access Private VPN for China at no cost indefinitely through the "Daily Check-in" feature. Each day, you receive 15 minutes of complimentary usage time. Moreover, for every successful referral, you earn 1 point, which can be redeemed for a 1-day pass. Here are the key points:

• Private VPN for China promises to provide the "Daily Check-in" feature free of charge indefinitely.
• New users are offered an initial 15 minutes of free usage time, with the chance to earn an additional 15 minutes by completing the check-in process the next day.
• During the free trial, you may utilize our services without any limitations on usage. However, please be aware that server access is limited to locations included in the free plan.
• You can accumulate points by engaging in our referral program and then redeem them for various plans.

Absolutely! We offer a 15-minute trial period each day. To start your trial, kindly follow these instructions:

1. Download the Private VPN for China app.
2. Create a new account.
3. Click the "Daily Check-In" button on the app's main screen.

Please note that the availability of this free trial may vary and could be terminated at any moment without prior notification.

Private VPN for China prioritizes user privacy, guaranteeing that no logs of activities or connections are maintained. Additionally, the VPN service refrains from retaining any information that could potentially identify specific network activities or behaviors linked to an individual user.

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

You can reach us through the following methods at any time:

• Website: http://privatejiasu.com
• Email: [email protected]
• QQ: available soon
• Telegram: available soon

While free Private VPN for China and proxy services exist, free Private VPN for China is typically not advised due to their common deficiencies in privacy and security compared to paid Private VPN for China. Free Private VPN for China often perform poorly, may jeopardize your data by selling it, and generally fail to offer adequate protection against possible cyber attacks.

The Private VPN for China app for Mac adds an extra security layer between your device and the internet, facilitating secure and private online activities like browsing, shopping, and streaming. This VPN not only safeguards your identity from surveillance or data collection online but also enables you to reach websites and content that might be restricted in your region due to censorship or network limitations at your school or workplace.

While macOS enables users to create a VPN connection via its System Preferences, this function alone does not serve as a VPN service. Rather, it serves as a conduit for connecting to external VPN services like Private VPN for China.

It's simple! Just download Private VPN for China, choose a subscription plan, open the app, and then hit the "On" button. Your connection will be securely encrypted. Loading...

Using Private VPN for China on your Mac will guarantee that you can browse online with privacy and security. By connecting to one of our Private VPN for China server locations, you can conceal your device's IP address, safeguard your data on unsecured Wi-Fi networks, and reach blocked websites.

Here are several excellent reasons to utilize a VPN:

1. Ensure safety on public Wi-Fi
2. Maintain your IP and location confidentiality
3. Safeguard your data from ISPs and applications
4. Access geo-restricted websites
5. Evade online censorship
6. Enjoy any content, anytime!

Obtaining a Private VPN for China app is easy! Just download and install Private VPN for China on your Windows, iOS, Android, or Mac device for a secure and encrypted online experience.

1. Download the Private VPN for China app for your iOS, Android, Windows, or Mac device.
2. Create an account.
3. Select a subscription plan.
4. Connect with a single click to enjoy a private and secure internet experience.

Using a VPN whenever you are online is an excellent practice to ensure your data and internet activities are secure from your ISP, Wi-Fi provider, and other entities. A VPN generates a secure tunnel for your data, making it invisible to external observers, including your ISP. Additionally, it conceals your actual IP address, allowing you to maintain anonymity and evade tracking or pinpointing.

In many regions worldwide, employing a VPN is legal and commonly utilized by individuals and businesses to safeguard their data, even in nations with stringent government regulations. While VPNs might occasionally face disapproval, numerous governments implicitly support their use by public servants, academics, or companies to remain competitive in a globally interconnected landscape. It is not feasible for countries to entirely ban VPNs. Nevertheless, it's important to keep in mind that illegal online activities remain unlawful, irrespective of the use of a VPN.

Using a VPN is extremely important nowadays, particularly when engaging in activities like banking, browsing, and messaging on your mobile device. It protects your data, especially when using public Wi-Fi. Additionally, if you enjoy streaming videos and music on your phone, a VPN allows you to access all your favorite entertainment on the move, just like you would at home!

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) creates a secure channel that connects various devices, offering a protected route. Using a VPN enables a secure connection to the internet, ensuring privacy and security protocols are maintained, while also allowing free access to digital content, regardless of geographical boundaries.